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Effects of Classroom Literacy Activities and Environments Developed to Motivate Boys
Chandra KarhuKelly LenihanMichelle MarziKimberly Pirro-Robinson
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Introduction
Currently,
educators across the
Importance
of motivation to read William G. Brozo and Josephine Peyton Young (2001) share the belief that, “boys are not engaging in school literacy practices as they could or should be” (Brozo & Young, 2001, p. 316). The question is, Why? According to Allan Wigfield and John T. Guthrie (1997), it is motivation that determines why individuals do (or do not) choose to do different activities. In their 1997 study, Wigfield and Guthrie found that boys and girls differ in their motivation for reading with girls generally showing more positive motivation for reading. In fact, they stated, “boys’ lower reading motivation should be viewed with some concern” (Wigfield and Guthrie, 1997, p. 430). Through his research, Jon Scieszka, author of numerous children’s books, has concluded that the single most critical element in boys’ reluctance to read is motivation. Motivation can be defined as, “The interaction between individual goals and behaviors and the opportunities that literacy instruction, especially tasks, afford students” (Turner, 1995, p.413). It is well accepted that the more children read, the better they read. In a study by Kathleen Cox and John Guthrie (2001), they give some insight into the connection between reading for enjoyment and achievement, “The amount that students read for enjoyment and for school is a major contributor to students’ reading achievement and knowledge of the world”(Cox and Guthrie, 2001, p.116). The connection between amount of reading and motivation was also discovered, “Amount of reading for enjoyment was predicted most highly by motivation, when all other variables were controlled” (Cox and Guthrie, 2001, p.116). Wigfield and Guthrie also found that children who report they are motivated to read tend to increase their reading in the present and the future. Cosgrove (2003) further supports this finding with her statement, “Knowing the skills of reading will not necessarily guarantee a mastery of reading unless students practice it on a voluntary and purposeful basis” (Cosgrove, 2003, p.34). It seems logical then, that to increase achievement, one must increase the motivation to read for enjoyment. Motivation to read, however, may be lacking in children for a variety of reasons. William Brozo gives some insight as to why motivation is lacking in boys, “I have observed countless young men floundering in a language curriculum that is insensitive to their outside of school interests and literature preferences” (Brozo & Young, 2001, p. 322). The damage caused by insensitive instruction can truly hinder learning. Powell, McIntyre, & Rightmyer (2006) actually believe that students will resist irrelevant instruction and sometimes sabotage their own learning.
What
Motivates Student
choice has been found to have a large impact on motivation. In a study by
Powell, McIntyre, & Rightmyer (2006), they found that tasks in which the
children had limited control and choice resulted not merely in
disengagement, but in behaviors that children also characterized as
resistant. In a study of middle school students, Broadus and Ivey
(2001) found through interviews that, “Students worst experiences reading
in school were directly related to assigned reading” (Broadus and Ivey,
2001, p.363). William Brozo (2002) also feels that is essential to
give students control over what they read and reading-related tasks in order
to keep them motivated. In fact, Broadus and Ivey (2001) found that,
“Students who were not engaged in assigned books often commented that they
did not understand the purpose of the reading exercise or that they found
the reading materials boring” (Broadus and Ivey, 2001, pp. 363-364). In
Julianne Turner’s study (1995) she discovered that when children were
allowed choice in their selection of texts, they chose books that were not
only appropriate for their skill level, but were more challenging ones than
were usually used for instruction and that provided opportunities for deeper
processing. The importance of children being able to access materials of their choosing is further emphasized by Worthy, Moorman, and Turner (1999) as they point out that students of lower income truly depend on schools to have regular access to materials they prefer because they may not have the funds to purchase literature. Au and McQuillan (2001) found that, “Increased access to reading materials may have an independent, causal role in increasing student’s motivation to engage in reading activities” (Au and McQuillan, 2001, p.225). As a result of a study by Karen Hartlage-Striby (2001) to determine if boys choose non-fiction over fiction, her librarian realized how she limited student choice by not even offering kindergarten children non-fiction books. The importance of interest for motivation is also correlated. Interest, according to Worthy, Moorman, and Turner (1999) is content specific. They feel personal interest in a subject motivates and facilitates the learner to process on a deeper level. They also suggest, “students who have access to materials of interest are more likely to read and thus to improve their reading achievement and attitudes” (Worthy, Moorman, and Turner, 1999, p.13). William Brozo (2002) believes that teachers will not be able to help eliminate some of the difficulties boys have in reading unless they familiarize themselves with the outside of school interests that boys have, and then acquaint the boys with literature relating to those interests. Cosgrove (2003) feels that, “What is read without purpose and interest, even though intended to apply isolated skills to reading, may help teach students to read but never very effectively or with lasting benefits” (Cosgrove, 2003, p.34). The current lack of integration is noted by Michael Smith and Jeffrey Wilhelm in their book, Reading Don’t Fix No Chevys, “What we found in our study is that all of the young men with whom we worked were passionate about some activity. They experienced flow. But, unfortunately, most of them did not experience it in their literate activity, at least not in school” (Smith & Wilhelm, 2002, p.30). The integration of student interest into the curriculum is not easy. “One barrier to using student reading preferences as a way to conceptualize a reading program is that we have so few models of how teachers put these programs into practice” (Broaddus and Ivey, 2001, p.368). Unfortunately,
according to Jon Scieszka (2003), “Schools and parents sometimes handicap
their efforts to get boys reading by not offering boys the books that will
inspire them to want to read” (Scieszka, 2003, p.18). The books and
literature that are usually preferred by boys have been found by Brozo
(2001) to be those with traditional masculine appeal. There was some
criticism of Brozo’s belief by the co-author of their article, Josephine
Young. She felt that providing stereotypical books for boys further divides
the curriculum by sex. Brozo debunks her feeling with the following
statement, “Instead of reinforcing stereotypes for boys by offering them a
steady diet of male-oriented books, schools are often failing to provide
boys the kinds of materials that would appeal to them at all”(Brozo &
Young, 2001, p. 322). Non-fiction books, according to a study by Karen
Hartlage-Striby are also of great interest to boys. In her study
conducted by library media specialists in three public elementary schools in
Strategies
to motivate Many
studies have shown that intrinsic motivation is the most effective type of
motivator. However, there has been little research done on the specific
methods to motivating students to read as supported by Julianne Turner
(1995), “There has been little empirical attention to instructional
mechanisms that might influence motivational literacy” (Turner, 1995,
p.420). This gap in the research about specific motivational strategies
gives our soon to be shared research purpose some support for its need.
A study by Broadus and Ivey (2001) did find, in a study of middle school
students, that the following factors were found to be critical to their
reading engagement: time to read, teacher read alouds, and personal interest
in reading materials. William Brozo (2002) speaks about his observations
from years of work in reading clinics: “Boys need personally meaningful
reading material to genuinely improve their literacy abilities” (Brozo,
2002, p.18). Providing
access to materials of interest is critical to motivation. Results of
the Au and McQuillan (2001) study found that, “The availability of reading
resources is associated with more self-reported free reading, independent of
reading ability” (Au and McQuillan, 2001, p.244). The impact of
providing access to books on reading achievement was also pointed out by Au
and McQuillan (2001), “The available evidence suggests…that physical
access to print alone can have an impact on reading achievement” (Au and
McQuillan, 2001, p.228). In fact, Jeff McQuillan and Julie Au (2001)
specifically support the need to explore the physical environment, “There
have been few attempts to understand how reading behavior is affected by the
physical environment that surrounds the reader” (Au and McQuillan, 2001,
p.226). They also state that, “The precise role of one’s physical
environment on interest and motivation in reading still needs further
specification” (Au and McQuillan, 2001, p.245). The ability to
access materials of interest is often seen by students to be difficult.
In follow-up interviews with middle school students in which high motivation
was reported, Ivey and Broadus (2001) found that, “The classroom was not
viewed as a place to find good reading materials” (Broadus and Ivey, 2001,
p.365). A specific strategy
to combat this difficulty suggested by William Brozo (2002) is to create
special “just for boys” sections in the library of books that are of
interest to boys. Obtaining information about student interest is
crucial to developing environments that appeal to boys. “Interest
inventories, surveys, and letter exchanges between teacher and student seem
to be another set of good ways to exchange information about personal
preferences and interests” (Smith & Wilhelm, 2002, p.20).
Student
perceptions Student
perceptions of their reading abilities and reasons for reading also
influence their motivation. “When children believe they are
competent and efficacious at reading they should be more likely to engage in
reading” (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997, p.421). In
Cosgrove’s study, she found, “None of the students who regarded
themselves as poor readers have a positive attitude towards reading, whereas
.71 of the students who read well do enjoy reading” (Cosgrove, 2003,
p.32). Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) also found that children who have
learning goals are more likely to maintain positive motivation in school,
which may support Donna Lester Taylor’s strategy suggestion of an inquiry
based curriculum. In a study by Smith and Wilhelm, they shared the remarks
of one student who explained why he ranked reading so low: “It feels like
it is almost a waste of time, because you are not accomplishing anything”
(Smith & Wilhelm, 2002, p.33). This remark highlights the need for
students to see authenticity in their reading tasks. There was mention
in both the Based on this review of research and the current trends in education, these researchers became interested in finding out if manipulation of the physical environment through integration of student interest, and introduction of male role models could affect their male students in the area of literacy. The research purpose was to examine the effects of activities and environments developed to motivate boys to read.
Method
Participants A
purposive sample of 46 males from four different school districts in
Manuel The first child selected was a kindergarten student from an urban area. The class consisted of 15 males age four to six. This school was a charter school containing Grades K-7. There were 294 total students in the school; they were all minorities. There was an average class size of 23. This school had 10 print volumes per student, 6 print periodical subscriptions and 50 non-print materials. The case study student from this class was an African American, five year old boy name Manuel. Manuel lived with his mother and sister. He received free lunch. He was reading on a DRA level of A. Manuel was perceived by his teacher to be energetic and enjoyed socializing with peers. Manuel was receptive to new ideas and tried to learn concepts taught. For the most part, he was well behaved and appeared to enjoy school.
Student
Interview Manuel
was interviewed by the researcher to gain more information about his
literacy affect. The interview began by asking him to select his
favorite book. Manuel selected, Goldilocks and the Three Bears, by
James Marshall. When asked, "Why is it your favorite book?"
Manuel indicated that he likes it when Goldilocks eats the porridge. When
asked if he had another favorite book, he mentioned, Five Little Monkeys
Jumping on the Bed, by Eileen Christelow. He said he liked it when all
the monkeys fall off the bed and bump their heads and the mother has to call
the doctor. When prompted, he also added that he enjoyed books that
were read in class. This shows that Manuel prefers reading books that
are humorous, rhythmic and that are familiar. To gain insight about Manuel’s reading experiences at home, he was asked, “Do you read at home?” He said, “Yes.” When asked, “Does anyone else in your house read?” He answered, “Yes, it is my sister, my mommy, my daddy, and my cousin.” He was then asked, “What do they read?” He replied, “Goldilocks.” When asked “Do they read their own books?” He replied, “some pictures…some kindergarten stuff…my sister reads some scary kindergarten stuff…it says that kindergarten will kill you.” When asked why people read, he said “Because my sister likes reading books and my big cousin.” He was then asked, “Why do other people read?” He answered, “Because my Dad like seeing the pictures of books, my sister likes reading the pictures, my mom like reading her favorite book.” When asked, "What is your mother's favorite book?" He replied, “it shows words.” These responses show Manuel perceives reading as an activity where people look at pictures and words. When Manuel was asked who the best reader he knows is, he answered, “Me and my cousin, my sister, and my mom.” When asked what makes them good readers, he said, “Because they be so quiet, my mom be so quiet, and my sister be so quiet, my cousin be so quiet.” He was also asked what kind of reader he thought he was himself. He said, “Uhhh…nice reader or sad reader.” These statements suggest that Manuel considers reading to be associated with behavior.
When asked, “What do you think makes people into great readers?”
He said, “I need to sit down, pay attention, and read my book.”
This confirms that Manuel associates reading with behavior. When
asked, “What do you think makes some people not be good readers?”
He answered, “Well, my mom always gets frustrated about reading some scary
books.” He was then asked, “Is there anything you can think of
that would help you get better at reading?” He answered, “I like
my sister but, my sister always screams at me, my sister always say I
can’t sleep with her, I can’t read with her, and I can’t read
either.” When asked, “What do you think will help you become a
better reader?” He answered, “My sister needs to help me read
‘cause I don’t know how to read yet.” These statements suggest
that Manuel feels he needs someone to support him at home while reading.
Manuel doesn’t feel confident to read independently.
Manuel also indicated that he likes to read and talk about books at school
with his new friends. He enjoys reading books to stuffed animals that
the researcher has already read and are available in the classroom library.
While reading to the stuffed animals, Manuel usually pretends that he is the
researcher using the same language that the researcher uses during read alouds. When asked what he likes to do outside of school, he said he
likes to play his Game Boy, football, and basketball. This interview
led the researcher to believe that Manuel does not often read for pleasure,
but he enjoys books that have already been read in class.
Parent
Survey The statements Manuel’s mom strongly agreed with were; enjoys being read to by family members, finds time for quiet reading at home, sometimes guesses at words, but they usually make sense, can provide a summary of stories read, has a good attitude about reading, and would like to get more books. These responses suggest that Manuel’s mother values reading at home. She did not disagree with any statements that were presented in the survey. The strengths that Manuel’s mother expressed are that Manuel loves to be read to and enjoys retelling a story by looking at the pictures. However, she indicated that she feels Manuel is too young to read to family members.
Charles The second child selected was in a kindergarten class consisting of 9 males ages four to five in an urban K-5 public school. There were 229 total students in the school, with a 58.5% minority population. This school had 34 print volumes per student, 0 print periodical subscriptions and 74 non-print materials. The case study student from this class was an African American, five year old boy name Charles. Charles lived with his father, mother, older brother and younger sister. He received free lunch. He was reading on a DRA level of A. Charles was described by his teacher as a very quite student who could easily be over looked in the classroom. He had a difficult time staying focused and following directions. Charles did not attend preschool last year and had started to fall behind the other children in his class.
Student
Interview Charles was also interviewed by his teacher. The interview began by asking him to select his favorite book. He went to the classroom library and selected, The Haunted House, by Sandra Lee. This book is about Halloween. When asked, “Why is it your favorite book?” He indicated that he liked Halloween. When asked if he had another favorite book, he mentioned another book at home but he forgot the title. He was then asked, “Do you read at home?” He said, “Yes.” When asked, “Does anyone else in your house read?” He answered, “My brother.” He was then asked, “What does he read?” He answered, “His homework and books.” When asked why people read, he said, “I don’t know.” With prompting, Charles stated that adults read to children. These responses show he is not sure of why people read. When Charles was asked who the best reader he knows is, he said “My brother.” When asked what makes his brother a good reader he said, “He reads to me.” He was also asked what kind of reader he thought he was himself. He said, “I am not a reader.” This shows that Charles does not see himself as a reader. When asked, “What do you think makes people into great readers?” He said, “They read.” This says he knows that the amount someone reads affects their performance. The next question the researcher asked was, “Is there anything you can think of that would help you get better at reading?” He said, “I don’t know.” This shows that Charles does not know how to become a better reader. Charles also indicated that he does talk about books with his friends. Charles did say he would like reading with a partner. When asked what he likes to do outside of school he said he likes to play outside; he plays basketball and goes to the park. This interview led the interviewer to believe that Charles does not consider himself a reader and he doesn’t know how to become a better reader. Charles does seem to enjoy being read to.
Parent
Survey Charles’ mom filled out the Parent survey form on Charles’ reading habits. She strongly agreed that he enjoys being read to by family members, is able to complete his homework, and would like to get more books. This shows that Charles is being read to at home and his mother is checking his homework nightly. Charles’ mom agreed that he can find time for quiet reading at home, can summarize stories, has a good attitude about reading, enjoys reading to family members, and chooses to write stories. There were two statements that Charles’ mom disagreed with, “Understands most of what he reads” and “Sometimes guesses at words, but they usually make sense.” This shows that Charles’ mom recognizes that he has trouble understanding what he reads. Charles’ mom did state that he is “very eager to learn new things.”
James The next case study student came from a class consisting of 8 males age five to six in a suburban first grade classroom. The class is in a public elementary school containing Grades PreK-6. The total school population is 636, with a 5.7% minority population. This school has 34 print volumes per student, 39 print periodical subscriptions and 650 non-print materials. The case study student from this class was a Caucasian six year old boy named James. He lived with his father and mother, and was the younger of two boys. James was reading on a DRA level of 2. He was described by his teacher as having little affect and often seemed sullen. He attended a reading intervention program every day of the week for approximately 30 minutes.
Student
Interview James was interviewed by his teacher to gain more information. The researcher began by asking him to select his favorite book. He moved quickly to the nonfiction section of the classroom library and selected, Where Does it Park? by Susan Canizares. This book has a photograph of a train on the cover. Inside, there are other pictures of vehicles. There is one sentence below each photo that says where the vehicle parks. When asked, “Why is it your favorite book?” He indicated that he liked the pictures. When asked to explain further, he said he enjoys watching the same things on TV: cars, trucks and buses. When asked if he had another favorite book he mentioned a Dumb Bunnies book. He said he liked the book because, “It’s very, very funny.” When prompted, he also added that he enjoyed books about monster trucks, trucks, airplanes, motorcycles, and cars. This shows that James prefers nonfiction books about vehicles as well as humorous books. To gain insight about James’s reading experiences at home, he was asked, “Do you read at home?” He said, “Not a lot of times.” When asked, “Does anyone else in your house read?” He answered, “My brother.” He was then asked, “What does he read?” He answered, “I think it’s his homework.” When asked why people read, he said, “Because they learn more.” With prompting, James suggested that people read to learn, “more words.” These responses shows he is likely not reading for pleasure outside of school and that he sees reading as a way to learn more, not something people do for enjoyment. When James was asked who the best reader he knows is, he couldn’t think of one. When prompted to think of a good reader he answered, “My dad.” When asked what makes his father a good reader he said, “He passed college.” James again appears to be associating reading with academics and not recreation. He was also asked what kind of reader he thought he was himself. He said, “Kinda good, kinda not good.” His teacher asked him why and he said, “Just because I don’t really read a lot. I only read for my homework.” He then said he doesn’t read for fun because, “You don’t play.” These statements confirm that James is not often reading for recreational purposes and that the he does not see reading as a fun activity. When asked, “What do you think makes people into great readers?” He said, “They read a lot.” This says he knows that the amount someone reads affects their performance. This finding is further supported by James’s response to the question, “Is there anything you can think of that would help you get better at reading?” He said, “Reading a lot of books.” James also indicated that although he rarely talks about books with his friends, he feels, “pretty good” about reading with a partner. When asked what he likes to do outside of school he said he likes to play tag, basketball, soccer, and football. This interview led the interviewer to believe that James does not often read for pleasure, but he enjoys funny books and nonfiction books about vehicles. He also knows that reading a lot can help one become a good reader.
Parent
Survey James’ mother completed the parent survey. On the survey she indicated that the statements she disagreed with most strongly were, “Enjoys reading to family members,” and, “Chooses to write about stories.” In fact, James needs much prompting to write in class. The statements she also disagreed with were, “Finds time for quiet reading at home,” “Has a good attitude about reading,” and, “Would like to get more books.” This indicates James does not feel motivated to select and read books for pleasure on his own. However, James’ mother did strongly agree that he enjoys being read to by family members. In fact, James is usually attentive during class read-alouds. James’ mother also noted that James understands what is read and can provide summaries of stories. She did feel he needed to work on sounding out words.
Michael The last case study student came from a class consisting of 12 males ages seven to nine from a suburban third grade classroom in an intermediate public school containing Grades 3-6. This school’s population was 316, with a 6% minority population. This school had 20 print volumes per student, 13 print periodical subscriptions and 341 non-print materials. The case study student from this class was a Caucasian, eight year old boy name Michael. He lived with his father, mother, and older brother who is in the fifth grade. He was reading on grade level. Michael was described by his teacher as often being defiant and avoidant of academics. The teacher said Michael’s mood affected his academic performance. Occasionally, Michael was removed from the classroom due to his behavior.
Student
Interview The interview began by asking Michael to select his favorite book, and he responded by saying, “No, there are no books here that I like.” The interviewer then asked him if he would bring in a book from home to share with her for the interview the next day, and he agreed to do so. The interview began immediately the next day when Michael produced the book Mythical Monsters from his book bag. This book had a picture of a dragon-like creature with vicious fangs on the cover. Inside, there are pictures of other fierce monsters. There is a paragraph on each page to describe what each monster is. When asked, “Why is it your favorite book?” He indicated that liked to read about monsters because they are cool to look at. When asked if he had another favorite book, he stated that he liked spider books because he likes learning about spiders because they are “fascinating creatures.” This shows that Michael likes reading both fiction books about mythical creatures, such as monsters, as well as nonfiction books about things such as insects. To gain more insight into Michael’s reading experiences at home, he was asked, “Do you read at home?” He said, “Kinda, Yah-Kinda.” When asked, “Does anyone else in your house read?” He responded “Yes.” He was then asked, “What do they read?” He answered, “Big chapter books.” When asked why people read, he responded, “Cause it gets their brain working.” This response shows that Michael sees reading as more of a learning activity, rather than an enjoyment activity. When Michael was asked who the best reader he knows is, he responded “My mom. She always reads books. She finishes them in like a week.” Michael was also asked what kind of a reader he thought he was, and he responded “A medium one.” Michael did not view himself as an exceptional reader.
When asked “What do you think makes people into great readers?” He
replied, “ Michael indicated that he feels “good” about reading with a friend. When asked what he likes to do outside of school he said that he likes to “play around”, and play tag. This interview led the interviewer to believe that Michael does not often read for pleasure, but he enjoys reading books about mythical creatures and spiders. He is also aware that reading can help him to become a better reader.
Parent
Survey Michael’s parents were the first to respond to the parent survey in the Grade Three Classroom. For the majority of the questions, such as “Understands most of what he or she reads”, and “Can provide a summary of stories read”, Michael’s parents chose to agree with the statements presented to them. However the one question where Michael’s parents responded with disagreement was, “Finds time for quiet reading at home.” After analyzing their choice of responses and further looking at their responses to the open-ended questions, this told the interviewer that they realize that if given the option, Michael is not going to pick up a book, but rather, he will choose another activity. Michael’s parents also strongly disagreed with “Chooses to write about stories.” In the open-ended response section, his parents listed “love of reading” as an area that needs improvement. Mom and dad wanted Michael and his teachers to work on comprehension, and not just “finishing” the book. They are concerned that Michael is unable to partake in discussions of texts he has read. Typically, according to his teacher, Michael liked to just look at pictures rather than read the story.
Trends There were several trends seen throughout the student interviews. First, the students gravitated towards humorous and non-fiction books. They also saw immediate family members such as brothers and mothers as readers. The children did not appear to associate reading with recreational purposes and did not seem to read for pleasure outside of school. Most of the children recognized the need to read in order to become a better reader, except for Manuel, who thought that paying attention was the most important thing to do to improve. The comments made by all four students indicate that they do not perceive themselves as strong readers. Manuel said he was a “nice reader,” while Charles said he wasn’t a reader. James said he was “kinda good, kinda not good,” while Michael described himself as a medium reader. A trend in student interests outside of school was basketball. The trends seen throughout the parent surveys were that the children all enjoy being read to and can provide summaries of what was read. The First and Third Grade students did not enjoy writing about stories, nor did they find quiet places for reading at home. The parents of the Kindergarten students indicated that the children will find quiet time for reading. Overall, the parents of both Kindergarten students rated their children higher in each category as compared to the parents of the First and Third Grade students. It could be that the demands placed on the Kindergarten students thus far have not caused the children to be greatly challenged or caused them to struggle.
Instrumentation In order to document evidence of a deficiency in reading motivation as well as obtain parent participation, the researchers sent home a letter to the parents of all males in the classroom informing them of the research that was going to be taking place. Attached to the letter, if they chose to participate, were parent surveys (see Appendixes A and B). These items were sent home prior to implementing any activities in the classroom. The survey was developed by Fredericks and Rasinski. The letter explained to the parents that the researchers were participating in a Master’s Degree Program, and that the emphasis of the research was student motivation in regards to reading. The letter further explained that as part of the project the researchers would be implementing motivational activities and making notes about how the children responded. Additionally, the note asked for the parent’s support and voluntary participation. If parents were willing to participate, they were asked to fill out the participation section of the letter as well as a short survey about their child’s reading habits and attitudes. The chosen parent survey consisted of 10 questions based on a Likert Scale, where the parents had to circle “A”, “B”, “C”, or “D” to indicate their feelings about a given statement. On one end of the scale, “A” represented “strongly agree,” and “D” meant strongly disagree. . Questions on this portion of the survey focused on reading, and included statements such as, “Enjoys reading to family members” and, “Finds quiet time for reading at home.” Following the ten questions there were three open-ended questions where the parents identified strengths they saw, areas that needed improvement, and concerns or questions that they had in the areas of reading. Once all the consent forms from the parent surveys were returned back to the researchers, Elementary Reading Attitude Surveys (see Appendix C) were then administered to the boys whose parents had given consent. These surveys were developed by Michael McKenna and Dennis J. Kear. They were used to determine how the boys in each participating classroom felt about reading for recreational as well as academic purposes prior to implementing any strategies. Certain controls were put in place in order to ensure that all students were administered the survey in the same way. All children were administered the survey in a one-on-one situation with the researcher. They were told that there is no right or wrong answer. Then, each question was read to each child. Reading the questions to all students was deemed necessary because kindergarten students would likely not be able to read the questions. The children then use a pencil to color in the response. The two boys who achieved the lowest combined recreational and academic score on the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey in each classroom, participated in a scripted student interview (see Appendix D) that asked questions about reading. The scripted interviews were tape recorded for accuracy. Prior to the question portion of the interview, each of the boys had to pick out their favorite book from their respective classroom libraries. The researchers then asked the boys specific questions such as “Why did you pick that book?”, “Who is the best reader you know?”, “Why do people read?”, and “What type of reader do you think you are?” Though the same interview questions were given to each child, the researchers agreed that probing for further information would be allowed if necessary. Based on information gathered from the parent surveys, student interviews and the scores on the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey, one male student was selected for a case study from each of the four participating classrooms who had been found to be the least motivated to read. In order to eliminate bias in selecting the students, the four researchers participating in this study exchanged information from the parent surveys, student interviews, and student surveys. A consensus was then reached by all of the researchers as to who was the least motivated male in each classroom prior to implementing any strategies. In total, four male case study students were chosen, one from each participating classroom. Throughout the research time period of four weeks, anecdotal notes were taken on each of the male students who were chosen for the case studies in order to document evidence of changes in motivation such as increased attentiveness and on-task behaviors. The anecdotal notes were taken on an organized record sheet in order to create consistency (see Appendix E). The record sheets were organized by weeks. Each week had a record sheet for each day. Throughout each day the researcher recorded the books that their case study picked for SSR time or any other or any other reading time during the day. Additionally, the researcher recorded the amount of time that the child spent with this book. The next section on this record sheet was for the child’s read aloud behaviors. For this section, the researchers recorded the child’s on-task and off-task behaviors during the read aloud times. Then, there was a section for the researcher to record any comments that the student had contributed pertaining to reading. Finally, there was an additional section for other observations that the researcher might have felt were pertinent to the research. Support for using anecdotal notes as well as student interview is given by Julianne Turner, “The most common methods of measuring motivation are self-report and observation” (Turner, 1995, p.421). Prior to implementing strategies, an “Attention Male Readers” letter (see Appendix F) was sent home with all the students in the classrooms. The purpose of this letter was to encourage male readers to come into the classroom and read in order to expose the students to more male readers. Any male figure that was part of the student’s life such as a father, grandfather, uncle, or older brother was invited to share stories with the classes. The importance of bringing male readers into the classroom as role models for boys is supported by research. “How else will boys become familiar with what male readers look like than to observe men reading? As noted, most teen and preteen boys rarely see fathers or any adult men reading anything at all” (Brozo, 2002, p. 95). Males who were interested in reading to the class either brought their own book or the teacher provided one for them. Books were agreed upon by the teachers prior to reading to verify that they were grade level appropriate. Some other controls placed on the implementation of male readers in the classroom were that each classroom would have two male readers come in each week for the duration of the study. The readers would also talk for no more than 10 minutes about why they like to read, and what they liked about the books that they shared. Another control was that all classroom readers would consist of at least one father, one custodian, one older student, and one administrator to read to each of their classes. The importance of the diversity for the male role models is highlighted by William Brozo, “These men should come from all walks of life—both blue- and white collar workers, people from the local college or university, members of the clergy, workers from retirement centers, and so on” (Brozo, 2002, p.97). A “Me in a Bag” Project (see Appendix G) was also introduced prior to implementing strategies to increase motivation. This project, a modification of William Brozo’s (2002) “My Bag” project, was created to get to know the children’s interests in order to help the researchers create a book rack just for boys. For this project, the children were directed bring in objects that answered questions that were on their assignment sheet. The questions on the assignment sheet were: “What do you love to do?”, “What are your dreams?”, “What do you want to be when you grow up?”, “What are your hobbies?”, and “What else are you interested in?” The children then brought the items in and shared them during a class share time. While they shared, the researcher recorded what each child brought in on a record sheet (see Appendix H). The researcher later referred to the record sheet to create a book rack for the children.
Me
in a Bag
Manuel Manuel brought in one picture of a football and a toy truck. The picture of the football represented what he was interested in. When asked why he included a toy truck, he said that he liked playing with trucks. Manuel also shared that he loves to play his Game Boy (hand-held video game system) and dreams of being a chef and a basketball player. When asked what his hobbies are, he answered watching television and playing video games. There were various replies for the “Me Bags” of male students in the classroom. The theme of playing video games was seen through sharing two video game cartridges, a magazine picture of a video game system, and a cell phone that was used for playing games. The theme of animals was seen in the sharing of magazine pictures of tigers and zebras brought in by two separate children. One child brought in his new-born brother’s hospital wrist band to share that he wants to be a doctor when he grows up. Another student brought in an apple to share that he wants to be a teacher when he grows up. Other children also brought in objects to show they were interested in racecars, trucks, coloring, and k’nex.
Charles Charles did not do the “Me Bag” assignment. When asked what he would bring in he said he loves to color and draw pictures at home. He also said he dreams about basketball and that he would have brought in a picture of a basketball. When asked, “What do you want to be when you grow up?” he said, “A police officer.” He said he would like to drive the car. Charles said he likes to play at the park and he is interested in Spiderman. There were several themes of common interest that were seen throughout the “Me Bags” of male students in Charles’ classroom. The theme of drawing was seen through the sharing of crayons, paper and coloring books. Cars were also seen as a common interest. Two children wanted to be firemen when they grew up, and one wanted to be an electrician; he brought in a light bulb. Several children like to play with balls and three brought in video games. Just like Charles, several of the males were interested in Spiderman.
James James brought in several pictures that represented his interests and dreams. He brought in a picture of a shark, and said that he wishes that he could be this animal in real life. He also shared a picture of a soccer player because he likes to play soccer. When asked why he included a picture of a plane, he said it was due to the fact he would like to be a pilot when he grows up. A picture of kids playing tag and a picture of a basketball player were also shared and illustrate his interest in tag and basketball. There were several themes of common interest that were seen throughout the “Me Bags” of male students in the classroom. The theme of sports was seen through the sharing of a Boston Red Sox pencil, a baseball ticket, a baseball card, a soccer ball, and a plastic football. The theme of drawing/art was seen in the sharing of a mini paint set, and drawings brought in by two separate children. Two children also brought in cards to show that they like playing cards and doing magic tricks. One or more children also brought in objects to show they were interested in rocks, animals, and Legos.
Michael Michael brought in some pictures and figures that represented things he liked to do and learn about. He brought in a picture and a figure of a spider and stated that he liked to read books about spiders. He also brought in pictures of jets, and dirt bikes and said that he wants to be a jet or a dirt bike rider when he grows up. Additionally, Michael brought in a picture of a car, and when asked why he brought this in, he stated that he likes to play with cars. It was noted that there were several themes of common interest that were seen throughout the “Me Bags” of male students in this Third Grade Classroom. The theme of cars was seen through the sharing of Hot Wheels, model Mustangs, and Porsches. The theme of sports was seen through the sharing of a mini basketball, soccer ball, baseball, football, and a New York Yankees figure. Children also brought in animal figures such as birds and cats to show that they liked animals, and that they want to be veterinarians when they grow up. Additionally, a child brought in a model train because he constructs them. The themes that emerged from the analysis of the “Me in a Bag” activity were that all of the case study participants were interested in vehicles, three out of four of the case study participants were interested in sports, and two out of four of the case study participants were interested in animals. Football, basketball, and soccer were the common sports interests. Trucks, cars, planes, jets, and dirt bikes were the common vehicle interests. Spiders and sharks were the common animal interests. The trends and themes that emerged from the rest of the participants were that they were interested in vehicles, drawing, and animals. Others preferred sports and video games. The “Me in a Bag” activity results assisted each researcher in choosing appropriate books for the “Guys Book Rack.” According to research, you should, “Give children freedom to select their books since readers tend to choose what interests them. Allow them ready access to the school and classroom media-centers and provide them with a variety of reading genres and materials. Make time for recreational reading during every school day, too” (Cosgrove, 2003, p.35). Book racks were designed to do just this. They were designed to have books and magazines that represented many different genres; such as humor, adventure, fantasy, fiction, nonfiction, biographies, and community helper books. Michael Sullivan (2003) states, “Boys are more likely to become pleasure readers if you let them choose their own reading and give them plenty of types of books they prefer.” According to Sullivan, the books that boy prefer are non-fiction, humor, sports, and fantasy. The racks also had many different materials, such as “How to” books and magazines (see Appendix J for Bibliography). The materials put into these book racks came from many different locations, such as classroom libraries, school media centers, and town libraries. Two crates were used in each room to construct the racks, and they were turned on their sides, allowing the children room to browse through the books that would be placed inside. The racks were not labeled as being just for boys, however, attention was brought to them through an introduction on the first day of strategy implementation. Researchers in each room introduced the racks by explaining to the children that there were new book racks in their classrooms, and that these racks had books based on their interests. To promote interest, each researcher presented books from the racks with a book talk on a daily basis. These book talks lasted no more than 3 minutes, and they were designed to get the children to want to take books from the racks and to really get them motivated to read. Within the book talks, the researchers began with showing the covers of the books, then asked the students a question such as “Have you ever wanted to…?” as it related to the book. Next, the researcher explained the problem of the book, if there was one. For nonfiction books, the researcher might have explained to the children new information they would learn about by reading the given book. Then, the researcher showed a picture from the book that the children may have found interesting and could possibly grab the children’s attention. The researcher might have also read an interesting part of the book, but made sure to stop before they revealed too much about the book. The purpose behind performing the book talks in this manner was to pique the students’ curiosity and encourage them to read in order to find out more. William Brozo shared his observations about the success of a “Guy’s Rack,” in a classroom of a former student, “The Guy’s Rack has made it possible for Evan and other male students to quickly find reading matter of high interest and to enjoy books without fear of ridicule.” (Brozo, 2002, p. 92). To maintain a control within the research study, each book rack was made up of 30 books, and was placed in the classroom library in each of the participating classrooms. The children were allowed to visit the book rack once during their SSR time and once during any independent time. While visiting the book rack, children were free to examine any books that they found to be interesting. Once the strategies to increase motivation began, the following timeline was implemented:
Week
One:
Week
Two:
Week
Three: (All activities continued this week were the same as explained during
Week Two)
Week
Four: (all activities continued this week as they did in Weeks two and
three)
Week
Five: (The male readers, book racks, book talks and anecdotal notes took
place in the same was as they did in weeks prior)
Upon completion of the four weeks of strategy implementation, a follow up letter (see Appendix I) and survey was sent home to parents to determine if they had seen a change in their son’s reading habits. To maintain consistency, the same survey was sent home as was sent in the beginning of the survey. Once the surveys were all returned, the researchers examined them to see if the parents saw any changes. The researchers were looking for parents to have chosen higher level feelings on the Likert scale based questions and additional strengths noted in the open-ended portion of the survey. The Elementary Reading Attitude Surveys were also re-administered to all of the boys. The researchers decided to use the same surveys so they could truly see the changes in attitude. The surveys were compared and the changes in attitude were noticed upon analysis. The case study students in each classroom were interviewed by each researcher using the same interview questions that they used prior to implementing motivation strategies. The researchers were looking for changes in response from the first interview. These interviews were also analyzed and compared to the initial interview.
Results The following results were obtained from the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey, student interviews, and parent surveys.
Manuel
In
the second administration of the Elementary Reading Attitude survey,
Manuel’s raw score went down seven points from a 50 to a 43.
Manuel’s recreational reading habits did not change and his academic
reading habits decreased. The most significant decrease in his
academic reading was noted when Manuel indicated he did not feel as good
when the teacher asks him questions about what he reads. However, an
increase in his recreational reading is noted in his answer to the question,
“How do you feel about starting a new book?” He circled the
Happiest Garfield instead of the Very upset
Charles
In
the second administration of the Elementary Reading Attitude survey,
Charles’ raw score went up two points from a 53 to a 55. His
recreational reading went up two points. The most significant increase
in recreational reading was noted when Charles indicated he felt a slight
increase in how he felt about reading on a rainy Saturday. He also
felt a little better about reading in school. Charles’ academic reading
score did not change. He did have two changes in his answers
from the first administration. He circled the Slightly smiling
James
In
the second administration of the Elementary Reading Attitude survey,
James’ raw score went up two points from a 38 to a 40. However, a
decrease in his recreational reading and an increase in his academic reading
habits resulted caused this change. The most significant decrease in
recreational reading was noted when James indicated he did not feel as good
about spending his free time reading. The most significant increase in
his attitude towards academic reading is noted in his answer to the
question, “How do you feel about reading your school books.” He circled
the Slightly smiling
Michael
In
the second administration of the Elementary Reading Attitude survey,
Michael’s raw score went up two points from a 20 to a 37. The most
significant increase was in recreational reading were Michael went up 12
points. On the first administration of the Elementary Reading Attitude
Survey Michael circled only the Very upset
The average total raw score for three of the four classrooms increased. The one classroom that did not show an overall increase was the Third Grade.
Manuel
Student
Interview Manuel was interviewed at the end of the action research study to gain follow-up information. Like the pre-interview, Manuel was asked to pick his favorite book. Manuel selected, Click, Clack, Moo: Cows That Type, by Doreen Cronin. Manuel stated that this is his favorite book because he likes cows. When asked to explain further, he said he likes it when the cows type a letter to Farmer Brown. When asked if he had another favorite book, he mentioned No David!, by David Shannon. He said he liked the book because, “I like when David got in trouble.” Prior to this interview, a male reader read this book to the class. These book selections suggest that Manuel still favors humorous book as stated in the student pre-interview and enjoys reading books that other people have read to the class. To gain further insight about Manuel’s reading experiences at home, he was asked, “Do you read at home?” Like the pre-interview, he said, “Yes.” When asked “Does anyone else in your house read?” He answered, “My mom, and my dad, my cousin, and my sister.” These are the same family members that Manuel mentioned in the pre-interview. He was then asked “What do they read?” He answered, “My mom read books that has pages, and my cousin read books for me, and sister read books for me too. My mom reads word books and my cousin reads books for me and my sister reads her diary.” In the pre-interview, Manuel’s sister read scary books and appeared not to support her brother. When asked why people read, he said, “Because people like to read.” With prompting, Manuel suggested that people read to find their “favorite part.” These responses show that he is aware that people enjoy reading words and personal writing. It appears that unlike the pre-interview, Manuel’s sister is more supportive and is encouraging him to read by reading stories to him. It appears that Manuel’s thoughts about why people read have changed. In the pre-interview he stated that people read because they like looking at the pictures in books. In this interview, Manuel stated people read to find their “favorite part.” It appears that Manuel is beginning to acknowledge that reading provides a purpose, enjoyment. When Manuel was asked who the best reader he knows is, he answered, “My mom, my dad, and my cousin.” In the pre-interview, Manuel stated the same family members but also included his sister. Manuel did not classify his sister as the best reader that he knows in this interview. When asked what makes his mother, father, and cousin good readers, he said, “Because my mom, and my dad, and my cousin read quietly.” Manuel was also asked what kind of reader he thought he was himself. He said, “a nice reader.” The teacher asked him why he thinks he is a nice reader, he said, “because I am quiet when I read.” As stated in the pre-interview, Manuel continues to associate reading with behavior. It doesn’t appear that Manuel reads for pleasure. When asked, “What do you think makes people into great readers?” Like the pre-interview, He said, “You need to be quiet and listen to the book.” This response shows that Manuel still believes that people, who are great readers, behave. They are quiet and they listen to the person reading the story. This finding is further supported by Manuel’s response to the question, “Is there anything you can think of that would help you get better at reading?” He said, “You need to listen, you don’t talk when mother, adult is talking.” Manuel also indicated that he feels happy reading different kinds of books with a partner. When asked to further explain, he said, “because I listen to books and when my mom tells me to pick a book, I do it.” It appears that Manuel does enjoy reading with a partner when offered the opportunity during class. This post-interview led the teacher to believe that Manuel still does not read for pleasure, but he enjoys listening to humorous stories. He also knows that good readers think about their favorite part of a story. As in the pre-interview, Manuel indicated that he enjoys reading books that have already been read in the class. This was evident when Manuel chose No David! as his second favorite book.
Parent
Survey Manuel’s mother strongly agreed with all statements presented in the post-parent survey. There were three changes between the pre and post parent surveys. On the pre-survey, Manuel’s mother wrote that her son was too young to read to family members, too young to write about stories, and too young to complete homework assignments. On the post-survey, Manuel’s mother indicated that she strongly agrees that Manuel can read to family members, write about stories, and complete homework assignments. For the open-ended question section, she did not indicate any strength’s or weaknesses that she has noticed, nor did she express any concerns that she may have.
Charles
Student
Interview
For the first interview he said that his brother reads at home, this time he said, “My Mother.” He was then asked, “What does she read?” He answered, “She reads to me and helps me with my homework.” When asked why people read, he first said, “I don’t know.” This time he said, “To learn.” This shows that he understands one reason why people read. When Charles was asked who the best reader he knows is, he first said “my brother.” This time he said “My Mother.” When asked what makes his mother a good reader he said, “She reads me funny stories.” He was also asked what kind of reader he thought he was himself. He said during the first interview, “I am not a reader.” This time he said, “I look at pictures.” This shows that Charles does see himself as a reader and is using a strategy to read independently. When asked, “What do you think makes people into great readers?” He first said, “They read.” This time he also said they read. When asked to elaborate he said that people read a lot. The next question the researcher asked was “Is there anything you can think of that would help you get better at reading?” He said the same thing for both interviews, “I don’t know.” This shows that Charles does not know how to become a better reader. Charles has shown some differences in his answers. He did try to answer more for the second interview with less prompting.
Parent
Survey Charles’ mom filled out the parent survey on Charles’ reading growth for a second time. Charles’ mom felt that she strongly agreed that he enjoys being read to by family members, is able to complete his homework and would like to get more books. This was the same as the first survey. There was one difference on the second survey. She answered that she strongly agrees that he understands most of what he reads. The first survey she answered that she disagrees with this statement. This shows that Charles continues to be read to at home, his mother is checking his homework nightly and he understands more of what is read to him. Just like the first survey, Charles’ mom would like to get more books for him. Charles’ mom did agree that he can find time for quiet reading at home, can summarize stories, has a good attitude about reading, enjoys reading to family members, and chooses to write stories. These were all the same as the first survey.
James
Student
Interview The interview began by asking him to select his favorite book. He went to the “Guys’ Rack” and selected, The Dumb Bunnies, by Denim. When asked, “Why is it your favorite book?” he indicated that he liked the ending when, “Baby bunny flushed her down the merry toilet.” When asked why he liked that part he said, “It’s very funny.” When asked if he had another favorite book he indicated that he enjoyed the other Dumb Bunnies book that was also in the “Guys’ Rack.” He brought the book over and flipped to the part he thought was funny. He commented, “They lick their ice cream upside down.” James shared that he decides what to read if it looks funny or it has vehicles in it. He also said that he knows if a book is funny if he has read it before. These statements confirm findings from the previous interview that James continues to prefer nonfiction books about vehicles as well as humorous books. To gain insight about how James’ reading experiences at home had changed he was again asked, “Do you read at home?” He said, “For my homework.” He could not think of any other places he read. This shows that James is still not reading much for enjoyment. When asked, “Does anyone else in your house read?” He answered, “My dad.” He was then asked, “What does he read?” He answered, “The newspaper.” Previously, James named his brother as a reader of homework. James’ statement indicates that he does have a male role model at home who reads for real purposes. However, when asked why people read, he said, “They learn better.” This is similar to his original statement, “To learn more words.” These responses continue to show he is likely not reading for pleasure outside of school and that he sees reading as a way to learn more, not something people do for enjoyment. When James was asked who the best r |
